Medicine and Hospitals in Byzantium - Through the Life of a 12th-century Physician

By George Papageorgiou
Translated from the Greek: Maxim Vasiljević

Foreword

During the 12th and 13th centuries, a decisive turning point occurred in the cultural and social landscape of Byzantium. In the 12th century, the dynasty of the Komnenoi Emperors ushered in the third and final great flourishing of the empire. The state was reorganized, strengthened both militarily and economically, and gained recognition from all the powers of the time. It came to be regarded as the most culturally and socially advanced state in Europe. Following the Komnenoi, a period of decline and disintegration set in during the twenty-year rule of the Angelos dynasty, culminating in the siege and fall of Constantinople to the Latins during the Fourth Crusade. The destruction of the City proved to be irreparable, and Byzantium never recovered its former power and glory. The dream of reclaiming the Queen of Cities lived on in the three Greek states founded after the fall: the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond, and the Despotate of Epirus. Among these, the first especially demonstrated remarkable military and cultural virtues, eventually recapturing Constantinople and reestablishing the Eastern Roman Empire—though as a mere shadow of its former grandeur.

During this period, Byzantine society stood among the most advanced in the Western world. The system of healthcare was remarkably developed for its time, as were the arts, the sciences, and the refinement of social life. Yet all these marvelous cultural and societal achievements of the “God-guarded” Empire remain unknown to most. It is a physician and philosopher of the era, Nikephoros Messenes, who undertakes to recount them for us, and his account is continued and completed by his student and successor, Nikolaos Melissenos.

Nikephoros Messenes is a fictional character. So is Melissenos. The historical figures and events described, however—as well as the intellectual, scientific, and cultural achievements of Byzantine society—are entirely real and carefully verified through the study of sources. Is Nikephoros, then, and are his friends imaginary? Yes—if by “imaginary” we mean a figure who gathers within himself the traits and experiences of several real people who truly lived. Yet in each of our lives, there are the events that actually occurred, and those we dreamed of, desired, or pursued. Our weaknesses, or the conditions of life, may have kept these from becoming reality. But are these aspirations and visions any less true than the things that happened? Certainly not. They mark our lives just the same. We might say, then, that Nikephoros and his companions are real persons—simply ones that no history book ever recorded.

The Byzantine Empire was never called by that name by its own subjects. It was always referred to as the Eastern (or Orient) Roman Empire, the “Christian Kingdom of the Romans,” and later simply as “Romania.” The term “Byzantium,” derived from the ancient Greek city that preceded Constantinople on the same site, was coined in the 16th century by the German humanist Hieronymus Wolf, a student of Melanchthon. Though not historically accurate, the name Byzantium proved so elegant and effective that it prevailed internationally and is used in this text for the convenience of the modern reader. The same principle applies to the dating system. The Byzantines used the older Roman-Christian method of reckoning time “from the Creation of the world,” according to which the birth of Christ occurred 5,508 years after the world’s creation. Thus, the year 1150—the birth year of our narrator—would have been recorded as 6658 in his own calendar. To avoid confusing the modern reader, the dates have been adjusted to the current system.

The physician and philosopher of this brilliant Empire—which once shone in power and culture, and now, humbled, is literally gathering its fragments in Nicaea, in Pontus, and in Epirus—invites us on a fascinating journey through time, where we shall encounter the significant figures and the radiant civilization of an era too often wronged by oblivion. Above all, he will reveal to us the marvelous achievements of Byzantium in the field of medicine and public health, incomparably more advanced than those of other states of the same period. Let us follow him…

Book Description

Medicine and Hospitals in Byzantium – Through the Life of a 12th-Century Physician invites the reader into the heart of one of the most advanced civilizations of the medieval world: the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire. Set against the backdrop of Byzantium’s final great flourishing under the Komnenian emperors and the dramatic aftermath of the fall of Constantinople in 1204, the book offers a vivid portrait of an empire at the height of its cultural and scientific achievements.

The narrative unfolds through the voice of a physician and philosopher, Nikephoros Messenes, and is completed by his student and successor, Nikolaos Melissenos. Though fictional, these figures embody the lived experiences of real Byzantine physicians, allowing the author to present a historically grounded yet deeply human account. The events, institutions, and intellectual achievements described throughout the book are meticulously based on verified historical sources.

At its core, the book reveals the extraordinary sophistication of Byzantine medicine and public healthcare. It explores hospitals, medical education, professional ethics, and the integration of philosophy, science, and Christian thought—demonstrating that Byzantium’s medical system was far more advanced than that of other contemporary societies.

More than a history of medicine, this work is a journey into a radiant but often misunderstood civilization. It restores Byzantium to its rightful place as a pioneer of organized healthcare and scientific culture, inviting modern readers to rediscover an empire whose achievements have too long remained unjustly forgotten.

Georgios C. Papageorgiou was born in Patras in 1945. He studied at the Medical School of the University of Athens and specialized in Surgery at Evangelismos Hospital. He pursued further training in Endocrine Surgery in England and France. He served for many years at Evangelismos as Registrar and, in his last ten years there, as Coordinating Director. Since 1998 he has collaborated with the KEDAS Association in the work of Medical Mission in Africa, in Kampala (Uganda) and in Bukoba (Tanzania). In addition to his medical publications and treatises, he has authored five books: 1) Saint Luke of Crimea and Albert Schweitzer (in Greek and English), 2) Demos of Dreams (in Greek), 3) Saint-Exupéry, the Last Knight of the Sky (in Greek and English), 4) Those Who Dared (the history of physicians in Africa during the colonial period) (in Greek), and 5) Oscar’s Fantastic Journey to the Sky (in Greek and German). He holds a Doctorate from the University of Athens and the title of Emeritus (Assoc.) Professor of Surgery.